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Juilliard Fellow Edits Routledge Handbook of Arts and Global Development

November 26, 2024

Patrick Kabanda, a 2002 Sylff fellowship recipient at the Juilliard School, has co-edited a “breathtaking” new book in the Routledge International Handbooks series analyzing the potential of the arts in promoting development.

The Routledge Handbook of Arts and Global Development provides a theoretical framework for the interdisciplinary field of arts and development, surveying a comprehensive range of art forms and development practices to explore the potential of the arts to strategically and beneficially contribute to more just and equitable conditions for communities across the globe.

Stretching across the arts from theater, dance, and music to poetry, film, and visual arts, the book covers topics as diverse as health, education, peacebuilding, livelihoods, sustainability, activism, and programming.

A native of Uganda, Kabanda is the author of The Creative Wealth of Nations (2018) and has consulted for the World Bank and the United Nations Development Programme. Through music, he helps people reconnect with their own rich cultural traditions and explore important social issues ranging from environmental challenges to poverty and human rights.

With master’s degrees from both Juilliard and the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, he was awarded the 2013 Presidential Award for Citizenship and Public Service from Tufts University.

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India and Southeast Asia: From “Look East” to “Act East”

November 22, 2024
By 21713

Close historical and cultural linkages between India and Southeast Asia have helped to build strong economic ties between the regions, which, argues Kamei Aphun (Jawaharlal Nehru University, 2004), can also lead to stronger security arrangements.

*     *     *

Sociologically, the term “culture” is used to differentiate groups of people based on their shared identity. Culture unites people and engenders a sense of togetherness. This does not mean, of course, that there is no interaction between cultural groups; like other entities, cultures may clash with one another or go through a process of bargaining and accommodation. Culture is a complex system that shapes and reshapes intergroup relations within societies.

India and Southeast Asia have a long history and tradition of cultural exchange through trade and commerce. According to Jayshree Sengupta, “Southeast Asia was particularly attractive to Indian mercantile class and they named the faraway lands Swarnabhumi or land of gold, Tokola or land of cardamoms or Narikeldeep, land of coconuts. They followed two routes—one through land via Bengal, Assam, Manipur and Burma to reach different parts of Southeast Asia. The other route was the maritime route from Coromandel coast or the coast of Bay of Bengal to Cape Comorin and via Malacca strait to reach the Malay Peninsula” (Sengupta 2017).

India and Southeast Asia also experienced colonization under such Western countries as Britain, France, the Netherlands, and Portugal in the nineteenth and twentieth century. Colonization involved economic exploitation and had a profound impact on the social, economic, cultural, and political development of the occupied regions.

Cultural Connections

Cultural ties between India and Southeast Asia are deep-rooted and diverse. The trade in goods led to the spread of religions like Hinduism and Buddhism from India to Southeast Asia, and languages like Sanskrit and Pali had a major impact on Southeast Asian languages. Similarly, Indian culture was influenced by Southeast Asia, as can be seen in Tamil culture, Indian cuisine, textiles, and music and dance. India’s Islamic architecture influenced Indonesian and Malaysian architecture, while Dravidian (South Indian) and Nagara (North Indian) architectural styles have influenced the design of temples in Southeast Asia.

Cultural commonalities are also found among the festivals of Rongali (Assam in Northeast India), Songkran of Thailand, Pi Mai in Laos, and Arunachal Pradesh’s Sangken, which are all celebrated around New Year’s.

 

The Anusawari Prachathipatai Democracy Monument in Bangkok, Thailand, incorporates design elements drawn from Hindu and Buddhist mythology.

India’s Look East Policy

Given the historical and cultural connection between India and Southeast Asia from ancient times to the post-independence period, India initiated a “Look East Policy” in 1991 as part of its foreign policy.

This policy was aimed at strengthening economic, strategic, and cultural ties with 23 countries in Southeast and East Asia, including Japan, South Korea, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. Northeast India played an integral part in this policy due to its geographical proximity to Southeast Asia. The various projects undertaken under the policy included the establishment of border trades centers in Moreh (Manipur); the improvement of transport links (the Indo-Myanmar Friendship Road; the Trilateral Highway linking India, Myanmar, and Thailand; the India-Myanmar rail link from Manipur to Hanoi via Myanmar; the Trans-Asian Highway; the Trans Asian highway from Singapore to Istanbul passing through India; and the Trans Asian Railway from Delhi to Hanoi); the hosting of the India-ASEAN Car Rally in 2004 from Guwahati, India, to Batam, Indonesia; the construction of the 800-km-long Trans-National Gas Pipe Line between Myanmar, Bangladesh, and India; and the implementation of Quick Impact Projects to build infrastructure in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam.

India’s Act East Policy

The Look East Policy was given an upgrade and rechristened as the “Act East Policy” in 2014, with the government rejuvenating its initiatives to actualize the potential of the policy. The Act East Policy marked a shift in India’s perspective of the world, as New Delhi gave priority to building cooperative ties with the rapidly rising economies of Southeast Asia.

The Northeast region was identified as being vital to the success of the policy for several reasons. First, four Northeastern states—namely Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram—shared borders with the Southeast Asian country of Myanmar. Second, besides geographical proximity, many ethnic groups in the Northeast region shared much in terms of culture, history, and even language with Southeast Asian countries. And third, the persisting problems of insurgency and economic underdevelopment were thought more resolvable by building stable ties with neighboring countries. The Act East Policy held the promise of actualizing both the internal and external aspirations of India, but materializing this vision would require thorough research and the implementation of appropriate decisions and policies.

As for the policy’s impact, the reality on the ground is that the results have thus far been mixed. Strong claims have been made that the central government was motivated by a desire not to promote the development of the Northeast region but rather to eliminate insurgency forces by cooperating with Myanmar. In this regard, Baruah (2007) maintains that the problem of the Northeast “did not begin with the insurgencies and it will not end with them.” In addition, while interaction between Southeast Asia and India overall has been increasing, that between the Northeast and its immediate neighbors has been in decline. Again, Baruah (2007) emphasizes that the need to establish not only maritime but also continental trade links to strengthen India’s economy in the long run provides ample reasons for the government to bolster its policies.

Other impediments to the realization of the policy’s goals include the requirement for Indian citizens to obtain Inner Line Permits to travel to protected tribal areas in the Northeast. This overcomplicates the process of making visits to and investing in the region; the abolition of the Armed Forces Special Powers Act, which grants special powers to the Indian Armed Forces to maintain public order in “disturbed areas” of the Northeast, has also been increasingly looked upon as a necessary step for the Act East Policy and related policies to bear fruit in the region.

And most importantly, the underdevelopment of road, rail, and air transport infrastructure needs to be addressed to ensure connectivity between the constituent states and other regions. The Act East Policy holds the potential of transforming the Northeast from peripheral status deprived of benefits to a robust region of trade and tourism where South and Southeast Asia meet.

Conclusion

Strengthening cultural linkages between India and Southeast Asia is an ambitious project that presents formidable challenges but also promises many benefits, as it can promote economic development in a region having a shared future and destiny. India’s Look/Act East Policy seeks to improve economic, political, and cultural relations with Southeast Asia by drawing on aged-old historical connections. It will guide India’s efforts to propel the region on the road to development fueled by cultural affinity, and this should help strengthen India’s position through the utilization of culture as a soft power.

 

The author with Sylff Association Chair Yohei Sasakawa during the April 2011 Building a Better Asia Young Leaders Retreat (BABA*) in Nara, Japan.

*Sylff News about "BABA".

References

Baruah, Sanjib. 2007. “Beyond Durable Disorder: Northeast India and the Look East Policy.” In Sanjib Baruah, ed., Durable Disorder: Understanding the Politics of Northeast India (pp. 211–236). Oxford University Press.

Coedes, George. 1965. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Haokip, Thongkholal. 2015. “India’s Look East Policy: Prospects and Challenges for Northeast India,” Studies in Indian Politics, Volume 3, Issue 2.

Keyes, Charles. 1994. The Golden Peninsula: Culture and Adaptation in Mainland Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Mabbett, Ian. 1977. “The ‘Indianization’ of Southeast Asia: Reflections on the Prehistorical Sources.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 8. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20070221.

McDaniel, Justin. 2008. “Pali.” New Mandala. Accessed December 20, 2023. https://www.newmandala.org/pali/.

Sarma, Atul. 2018. “Integrating Northeast with South East Asia: Great Expectations and Ground Realities.” In Atul Sarma & Saswati Choudhury, eds., Mainstreaming the Northeast in India’s Look and Act East Policy. Palgrave Macmillan.

Sengupta, Jayshree. 2017. “India’s Cultural and Civilisational Influence on Southeast Asia,” Observer Research Foundation.

Singh, Shreya. 2023. “Mapping India’s Historical Ties with Southeast Asia.” Indian Council of World Affairs.

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Interiors of Inequality: Ethnographic Exploration of Social Housing in Serbia

November 12, 2024
By 28933

Residents of Serbia’s social housing estates navigate a landscape marked by overcrowding, institutional abandonment, and a persistent threat of eviction. Fieldwork conducted using an SRG award by Sara Nikolić (University of Belgrade, 2020–21) reveals that contrary to stereotypes that label them as lazy or deceitful, these individuals are actively engaged in homemaking and yearn for improved conditions.

*     *     *

The narratives of abandonment and neglect articulated by the residents of social housing estates in Serbia come as no surprise when thinking of the welfare system in the country. In public discourse and the media, people dependent on welfare, especially those in Roma communities, tend to be portrayed as lazy, incompetent, fickle, and intrinsically prone to crime.

With the aim of countering such racist narratives, I have been conducting research into the nexus between social housing tenants and their living environments. Specifically, my research probes the concept of homemaking and its boundaries within the challenging context of poverty and extreme housing precarity.

Overturning Popular Stereotypes

What I gathered from social housing estate residents during my fieldwork challenged the popular notion of tenants as criminals who deceive and exploit the state and taxpayers and who base their claims on exaggerated or false claims. They frequently lamented what they legitimately perceived as an inadequate state presence, expressing the need for the state to provide more services and resources to the local community and their estate.

Moreover, the residents’ use of terms like “care” and “interest” suggested a deeper, more personal connection to their neighborhoods, implying that the estate was situated within the moral framework of the local community (Kocsh 2014).

The socialist system in Yugoslavia, which considered housing as social infrastructure, provided a relatively easy path to securing a roof over one’s head. This system was suspended in 1990, however, when constitutional changes abolished the obligation of employees to set aside a contribution for housing construction from their salaries.

This was followed by the “big bang” privatization of apartments. In just under five years, the housing market was completely transformed, with 98% of publicly owned apartments passing into the hands of private owners (Damjanović 2010). This speedy shift toward neoliberal housing policies also resulted in a steady withdrawal of state resources and services from social housing estates.

The estates where I conducted my fieldwork—a small community of twenty, mainly Roma households displaced from Kosovo and a large neighborhood of nearly a thousand households of economically and socially disadvantaged families, again mostly of Roma origin—are exemplary in this respect. Situated, respectively, in the outlying areas of a middle-sized town and the capital city, they were built in the 2000s to offer housing for seriously disadvantaged communities.

For over 10 years now, about half of the residents of both estates have been without electricity, and a large number of households are at constant risk of forced eviction. In addition to problems of unemployment, welfare dependence, and health problems related to poor housing conditions, these tenants must deal with a vast and inflexible bureaucratic machinery when reporting problems with their homes or the rental system.

In the following, I describe the findings of an ethnographic inquiry into the homemaking practices of these estates, conducted with the help of an SRG award.

In-Depth Interviews with Residents

This research project adopted the concept of unhomeliness to describe the state’s lack of care, as manifested directly and collectively within social housing estates (Miller 1988; 2001; Navaro-Yashin 2012).

Ethnographic fieldwork was conducted from May to September 2024, with data collection carried out by myself and two PhD students, Dušanka Milosavljević and Igor Išpanović. Since the research involved working with people, particularly marginalized communities, all activities were conducted in strict adherence to the Code of Ethics of the Institute for Philosophy and Social Theory, University of Belgrade.

Alongside records of interviews and home visits, the data collected included observations, sketches, photographs, and diary entries made during and immediately after visits to the settlements. A total of 20 in-depth, semi-structured interviews, each lasting approximately one hour, were conducted in the homes of social housing estate residents. The respondents, aged between 18 and 65, were primarily of Roma origin, with a few of Serbian and Wallachian descent. Recruitment followed a snowball sampling method, with local gatekeepers playing a key role in fostering trust and facilitating connections within the communities.

Of the 20 participants, 5 were men and 15 were women. This gender disparity is largely due to the timing of the field visits, which took place during the day when women and children were more likely to be at home, while men were often occupied with informal and precarious work, such as collecting secondary raw materials or working in construction.

All respondents provided informed consent for both audio recordings of the interviews and visual documentation of their living conditions, including sketches and photographs of their apartments. Consent covered the use of these materials for research and promotional purposes. In cases where respondents were not functionally literate, the researchers read the consent form aloud, and verbal consent was obtained.

Overcrowded Housing and Lack of Privacy

I’d rather live in a desert—at least there, no one is around.
—Man, Uzun Mirkova estate, Požarevac

The notion of what defines comfortable living differs widely. For many of my informants, who have experienced homelessness, the hardships of war, and inadequate collective emergency housing, conversations about housing often touched on issues like overcrowding, the need to share resources among family members, and distinctions between those who had benefited from welfare policies and those who had not.

Home comfort has both social and material dimensions (Johnson 2018). Socially, it involves expectations regarding living standards, as well as the economic, legal, family, and civic relationships that help maintain the resources needed to meet those expectations. On the material side, it includes the infrastructure—pipes, wiring, and other systems—that ensure the home remains warm, well-lit, and healthy. The apartments I visited during this research failed to meet such “comfort criteria.”

A family home in Uzun Mirkova estate, Požarevac, Serbia. May 2024. Photo by Sara Nikolić.

However, the greatest source of discomfort stemmed not from inadequate and health-threatening housing conditions but from the lack of privacy. When asked what they would prioritize if financial constraints were lifted, many respondents expressed a desire to “move out of here and have our own yard.” Such responses suggest a yearning for private space, rather than a fetishization of private property.

After fleeing Kosovo after the war, the residents of Uzun Mirkova lived in emergency shelters for the first 11 years. They then gained access to social housing, but they were assigned homes that lacked essential amenities and were overcrowded, with living space of only 35 to 50 square meters for each household averaging seven members.

The constant presence of other people has not engendered a sense of community. Extreme poverty has hindered the fulfillment of basic needs, resulting in a situation where individuals, particularly women, spend time together out of necessity rather than genuine social connection. Men, on the other hand, sought employment outside the estates, creating further separation. For those who have access to electricity, the preference is often to isolate themselves with the television set, disconnecting from the chaos that envelops them.

Threat of Eviction Induces “Anticipatory Uncanniness” 

No one comes to visit us. They come to evict us, to give us eviction notices, to mistreat and threaten us. . . . We have no rights here, as if we’re not Serbian citizens.
—Woman, Kamendin estate, Belgrade

Housing conditions were a source of frustration and complaint for everyone. Apartments were chronically overcrowded, electricity was cut over a decade ago, mold was difficult to eliminate due to widespread dampness, and the flats remained cold during winter. Despite these issues, the competent institutions appeared reluctant to invest in repairs or maintenance, let alone in constructing new homes. Moreover, they blamed the tenants themselves for the poor living conditions. In the Belgrade neighborhood of Kamendin, a campaign against “ungrateful” residents resulted in massive eviction orders.

In the Kamendin estate, gas is used for cooking, heating, and for threatening police and enforcement officers during forced eviction attempts. June 2024. Photo by Sara Nikolić.

In contrast to common eviction narratives (e.g., Desmond 2017; Sullivan 2017), the presence of legal coercion did not lead solely to feelings of worry or despair (though such emotions were expressed as well). My research revealed that, in addition to evoking fear, anxiety, tension, depression, shame, and grief (Dudley 2000; Han 2011), the threat of eviction also generated hope and a feeling of homeliness.

More precisely, the tenants I encountered responded to the potential coercion in varying ways, ranging from anger toward racialized welfare policies and optimism over the prospect of “moving out of here” to fear of facing the grim potential of once again losing their home. This anticipatory uncanniness (Davey 2019) demonstrates how the state, through its recourse to legitimate coercion and institutional racism, subtly influences the aspirations tenants develop in relation to their homes.

Conclusion

This ethnographic exploration of social housing conditions in Serbia sheds light on the complex and often overlooked experiences of residents, particularly those living in extreme housing precarity. The narratives gathered during my fieldwork challenge the stigmatizing portrayals of social housing beneficiaries as exploiters of welfare systems, revealing instead a population that deeply yearns for stability, care, and improved living conditions. Contrary to public perceptions, these individuals are not passive recipients of state aid but are actively engaged in homemaking under conditions of chronic neglect, overcrowding, and institutional abandonment.

The research also highlights the ways in which legal coercion and the ever-present threat of eviction shape the emotional landscape of social housing residents. The anticipatory uncanniness experienced by many residents underscores how the state’s subtle and overt forms of control impact not only their current living conditions but also their visions for the future.

In sum, this study offers a critical understanding of the relationship between the state, social housing, and its marginalized residents. It calls attention to the urgent need for rethinking housing policies in Serbia, where systemic neglect, bureaucratic hurdles, and inadequate resources continue to undermine the dignity and well-being of those most in need of secure and humane living environments. By focusing on the everyday struggles and aspirations of these communities, this research contributes to broader anthropological discussions on housing precarity, social justice, and the role of the state in shaping lives at the margins.

 

References

Damjanović, D. (2010). Socijalno stanovanje: Prikaz stambenih politika Srbije i odabranih zemalja Evrope. Beograd: Palgo centar. 

Davey, R. (2020). Snakes and ladders: Legal coercion, housing precarity, and home-making aspirations in southern England. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 26(1), 12–29. 

Desmond, M. (2017). Evicted: Poverty and profit in the American city. London: Penguin. 

Dudley, K. M. (2000). Debt and dispossession: Farm loss in America’s heartland. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 

Han, C. (2011). Symptoms of another life: Time, possibility, and domestic relations in Chile’s credit economy. Cultural Anthropology, 26(1), 7–32. 

Johnson, C. (2018). The moral economy of comfortable living: Negotiating individualism and collectivism through housing in Belgrade. Critique of Anthropology, 38(2), 156–171. 

Koch, I. (2014). Everyday experiences of state betrayal on an English council estate. Anthropology of This Century, 9.

Miller, D. (1988). Appropriating the state on the council estate. Man, 23(2), 353–372. 

Miller, D. (2001). Possessions. In D. Miller (ed.), Home possessions: Material culture behind closed doors, pp. 107–122. Oxford: Berg. 

Navaro-Yashin, Y. (2012). The make-believe space: Affective geography in a postwar polity. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. 

Sullivan, E. (2017). Displaced in place: Manufactured housing, mass eviction, and the paradox of state intervention. American Sociological Review, 82(2), 243–269. 

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World War I Initiative to Advance France’s Diplomatic Interests through Music

November 1, 2024
By 29373

French musicians toured the United States during World War I as part of an effort to strengthen diplomatic ties through the universal language of art. This initiative, writes Gabriele Slizyte (Conservatoire de Paris, 2019), was led by the French government but was also aided by American philanthropists, helping lay the groundwork for ongoing cultural exchange between the nations.

*     *     *

During World War I, French musicians travelled to the United States under the auspices of the French government as representatives of their country to promote classical music. These “concert tours” were part of a detailed and well-organized government plan to persuade the United States to join the war as an ally. With these diplomatic and cultural initiatives, the French government was able to not only bolster its military position but also keep the “French spirit” intact. Following the war in 1922, the Association française d’action artistique (AFAA) was created by the Ministry of Fine Arts and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to maintain and develop these cultural actions through concert tours.

I am currently conducting research on the AFAA and French musicians in the United States as part of my PhD thesis. Because this topic involves a transatlantic relationship, I needed to visit both French and American archives to conduct an impartial analysis of this cultural and diplomatic initiative encompassing such various disciplines as music, history, sociology, and politics. With the help of an SRG award, I was able to conduct a three-part research project between April 1 and September 11, 2024.

Personal, Rather Than an Institutional, Approach

The first phase of this project was decrypting the daily work of the AFAA as an administrative agency. I wished to go beyond a surface understanding based essentially on an investigation of the institutional archives located near Paris. I thus conducted domestic fieldwork at the Institut Mémoires de l’édition contemporaine, situated in the Ardenne Abbey near Caen, France, to study the personal records of the AFAA’s founding director Robert Brussel (1874–1940). During a four-day archival residency, I became immersed in his correspondences with sponsored artists and also learned about his daily work routine as director through his drafts and written reports of the association’s activities. This personal approach led to a better understanding of the work-based relationship between AFAA staff, government workers, and artists.

The second phase was conducting international fieldwork, visiting notable archival collections of libraries,[1] universities, and symphonic orchestras in the Northeastern United States:

  • Philadelphia Orchestra Association records, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania
    • Otto H. Kahn Papers; Manuscripts Division, Department of Special Collections, Princeton University Library
    • Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, New York
    • Boston Symphony Orchestra Archives, Boston
    • Yale University, Irving S. Gilmore Music Library, The Virgil Thomson Papers
    • New York University Archives, Records of Town Hall
    • New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division, James Hazen Hyde Papers
    • New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Gabriel Astruc Papers

At the Rockefeller Archive Center in Sleepy Hollow, New York.

The data I collected included correspondences, oral histories, business and institutional documents, memorabilia, printed materials, photos, and personal files. In addition to using this information to ascertain the frequency of concerts featuring French musicians, their repertoire, and what they earned, I was also interested to learn how, once financed by the government, they assimilated themselves in a foreign country and became ambassadors of French culture. In this endeavor, the Boston Symphony Orchestra Archives was the most interesting source of information. Since the orchestra’s founding, many French musicians have joined its ranks with the help of the French government. Their oral archives and memorabilia gave me fuller insights into their American careers and helped me to better understand the implications of the AFAA.

Even though the methodology of this project was aimed at obtaining quantitative data of French artists’ performances and spatial data of their tour circuits in the United States, I realized that this would not be complete without a third component. While studying the archives of prominent American financial figures who supported the AFAA’s actions, such as the Rockefeller family, Otto H. Kahn, and James Hazen Hyde, I discovered that philanthropic work represented a key component of defending cosmopolitan ideals during times of conflict. In that regard, the AFAA was not alone in defending and promoting French culture; there was a group of important figures that included artists, sponsors, politicians, and many others.

Cosmopolitan Attempt at Universalizing the Arts

Before starting my project, I hoped to advance the hypothesis that the AFAA, through the dispatch of artists and musicians to the United States, enhanced Americans’ appreciation of French culture and improved France’s image after World War I and World War II. As a result of my international fieldwork, I came to realize that the creation of AFAA in 1922 was not the start of such an endeavor but the consequence and institutionalization of the work initiated by French and American figures prior to World War I. As such, the war represented not the beginning but an acceleration of the process of universalizing the arts. Rather than attempting to impose French culture on a different country as a form of nationalism, the AFAA was a cosmopolitan attempt to make it a universal language and a tool of communication.

Even though the primary focus of my research was on musicians, some of the consulted archives, such as the James Hazen Hyde Papers at the New York Public Library, pointed to the importance that theater and language can also play as vehicles of cultural dialogue. I hope to explore and analyze these documents in an upcoming article on the international tours of theater companies.

 

The New York Public Library.

During both my domestic and international fieldwork, I wished to go beyond an examination of the roles played by institutions. Thus it was crucial to gain a better understanding of the work of key figures in Franco-American relations. The philanthropic work of the Rockefellers, the participation in the Red Cross and collaboration with the Alliance Française by James Hazen Hyde, and the support extended to artists by Otto Kahn and Gabriel Astruc were given structure and augmented multifold by the creation of the AFAA.

The Sylff Research Grant has also enabled me to start a series of language translations of my work from French to English, which will allow me to communicate my findings to a broader audience.

The documents in the archives that I examined during this project testified to and reaffirmed the important role that artistic and cultural exchange played during wartime. Over the past century—and even now in our increasingly conflict-ridden world—musical, artistic, and cultural expressions can become powerful tools of personal identification and resistance, which are among the most significant and meaningful of human expressions.

I am very grateful to Mr. Yohei Sasakawa and all members of the Sylff Association secretariat for the Sylff fellowship and the SRG award. With your help since 2019 and later during the COVID lockdown, I was able to finish my studies at the Conservatoire national supérieur de musique et de danse de Paris and to start my PhD degree at the École des hautes études en sciences sociales. Your support and encouragement have allowed me to pursue my academic project. Thank you for letting me be a part of the Sylff community.

[1] As part of the project, I intended to visit the Patricia D. Klingenstein Library of the New-York Historical Society, but it was temporarily closed to researchers while it was preparing for the groundbreaking and construction of its new wing. However, I was able to obtain a limited number of reference scans from the James Hazen Hyde Papers.

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The Age of Uncertainty and Nuclear Proliferation

October 24, 2024
By 32081

In an article that was originally published in Turkish in Gazete Duvar, Mühdan Sağlam (Ankara University, 2015–16) discusses the dysfunction of the liberal global system, citing the Nobel Peace Prize awarded to Nihon Hidankyo to highlight heightening nuclear proliferation risks and the need for disarmament.

*     *     *

The deadlock in the liberal global system has of late become clear for anyone to see. The system has long been marked by imbalances, double standards, and the disproportionate decision-making clout of the Security Council’s five veto-wielding countries. In fact, these inequalities have been pointed out since the United Nations was founded in 1945, as suggested in the speech by its second Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld that the “UN was not created in order to bring us to heaven, but in order to save us from hell.”

Although international relations experts point to different dates and events as to when the system reached a standstill, almost all agree that it has now become dysfunctional. There is no telling what a new replacement system would look like, but there are expectations.

Some experts posit the possibility of a new bipolar order, while others caution against the potential for Chinese hegemony. There are also those suggesting that we may enter an “age of disorder” and that we need to take a broader look at history.

The current uncertainty and lack of direction serve to highlight the significant risk of a major conflict. One fundamental question that must be addressed is whether war will accompany the transition to a new order (or disorder). Providing a definitive answer at this time would be difficult, but we can nonetheless examine the pertinent issues, particularly the possibility of the use of nuclear weapons. The focus of my article will be on nuclear armament and its potential for creating a state of perpetual conflict.

“Now I Am Become Death, the Destroyer of Worlds”

Toward the conclusion of World War II, a considerable number of experts hypothesized that the atomic bombing of a nation that was already prepared to capitulate altered the trajectory of global history, if not the war itself. The bomb was developed as part of the US Manhattan Project and dropped first on Hiroshima and then Nagasaki, causing unprecedented suffering to the civilian population and destruction of infrastructure.

The world gained its first glimpse of the concept of nuclear weapons through this devastating and inhumane attack. Indeed, in response to the devastation he had unleashed, the head of the Manhattan Project, J. Robert Oppenheimer, stated in an interview in the 1960s that he recalled a line from the Bhagavad Gita: “Now I am become death, the destroyer of worlds.” The contradictions, dilemmas, and remorse felt by the physicist are portrayed in Christopher Nolan’s award-winning 2023 biopic. Nolan did not include images of the people who died in Japan; instead, he allowed their screams to resonate. Those screams have done little, however, to prevent the world from moving ahead with nuclear armament.

The Nobel Peace Prize in 2024 was bestowed upon the Japanese organization Nihon Hidankyo in recognition of its contributions to the global effort toward nuclear disarmament. The official announcement of the Norwegian Nobel Committee states, “This grassroots movement of atomic bombing survivors from Hiroshima and Nagasaki, also known as Hibakusha, is receiving the Peace Prize for its efforts to achieve a world free of nuclear weapons and demonstrating through witness testimony that nuclear weapons must never be used again.”

Members of Nihon Hidankyo, a grassroots Japanese organization of atomic bomb survivors from Hiroshima and Nagasaki, hold a press conference after winning the 2024 Nobel Peace Prize. ©Tomohiro Ohsumi / Getty Images

The organization states on its website, “We hibakusha have been describing the realities of the damage of the atomic bombing and appealing on our suffering, because we want that no one else should ever suffer the hell we have experienced.” Following the award, the co-chair of the group has drawn parallels between the experiences of hibakusha 80 years ago and people in Gaza today. “Children are being covered in blood and living every day without food.”

This serves to remind us of the gravity of the current situation and the necessity of pursuing a path to peace and disarmament. The formation of a mushroom cloud and the subsequent blinding ball of flames are not prerequisites for creating hell on earth. In the period since 1945, what actions have been taken on the global stage to prevent human suffering?

As Nihon Hidankyo maintains its stance against nuclear weapons, it appears that for some, anti-nuclearism has become a mere rhetorical device employed in ostentatiously decorated halls of power. Let us now examine the sequence of events and the current situation.

Embracing the Bomb to Win the Arms Race

The global landscape during the Cold War was characterized by the coexistence of two distinct centers of economic and political influence: the USSR and the Eastern bloc on one side, and the US and the Western camp on the other. Common to both systems, however, was that they were engaged in the arms race, which meant that the path to being first required a focus on developing and utilizing weapons of mass destruction.

In 1945, the United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japan, which the Soviet Union interpreted as a message directed at itself. In response, the Soviet Union accelerated the development of nuclear weapons. When the USSR successfully tested its first atomic bomb in 1949, the United States, which had been developing nuclear weapons since the 1930s, was still in the lead. Two years later, the United States proceeded to test a hydrogen bomb.

In 1953, the USSR, too, conducted a nuclear test involving a hydrogen bomb. And the 1957 launch of the Soviet Union’s artificial satellite, Sputnik, into space had a profound impact on the global landscape, intensifying the already palpable sense of dread surrounding an impending nuclear conflict and the underlying geopolitical tensions.

The launch of Sputnik conveyed a clear message: If one possessed the capability to launch an artificial satellite into space, it would be possible to attach a nuclear warhead to the satellite’s head, transform it into a missile, and subsequently target US territory. One of the world’s superpowers was now confronted with the imminent threat of a potential nuclear attack.

In response to the perceived threat of imminent nuclear attack, the United States increased its nuclear weapons arsenal. This process resulted in a significant strategic transformation within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which had been established by the United States. The deployment of “medium-range guided missiles” on the territories of allied nations in close proximity to the Soviet Union was initiated. The world was gradually becoming an unparalleled arsenal.

Disarmament Treaties: Short-Lived Period of Prudence

The concept of the “balance of terror,” which was used to describe the arms race during the Cold War, is no longer a suitable description, as it does not reflect the rational limits of the situation. Instead, it better describes the intense emotions that are generated by this race. The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis served as a stark reminder to both parties that they were on the verge of a catastrophic outcome. After this crisis, the United States and the Soviet Union entered into the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), which resulted in the signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I and SALT II) and the subsequent Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START). These treaties sought to limit the deployment of ballistic nuclear missiles. This was followed by the signing of the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) in 1972. Notwithstanding these agreements, the budgets allocated by both parties for armaments continued to rise.

The nuclear threat, which reached its peak during the Ronald Reagan administration, entered a new phase with the USSR’s economic and social exhaustion. Mikhail Gorbachev’s “new thinking” (novoye myshleniye) policy facilitated the resumption of nuclear disarmament negotiations in 1985. Following negotiations between Reagan and Gorbachev, the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty was concluded in 1987, resulting in the destruction of approximately 2,700 missiles. This collaborative approach to nuclear disarmament was further extended to encompass restrictions on conventional weapons in Europe. However, this period of reason and prudence was not to last long.

Appealing for an End to the Cycle of Violence

Some of the agreements concluded were subsequently nullified as a result of changes in circumstances. These actions were taken with a degree of audacity that demonstrates a lack of awareness of historical precedent. This approach showed a disregard for the concept of historical continuity, as encapsulated in the phrase was prevalent in the early 2000s, “Yesterday was yesterday, and today is today.”

In 2019, the United States withdrew from the INF Treaty. In the context of the war in Ukraine, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced the suspension of START, which had been extended for five years in 2021. He stated, “Today I have to announce that Russia is suspending the START treaty,” adding, “Of course, we won’t be the first, but if the United States conducts nuclear tests, so will we.”

While tensions escalated between the United States and Russia, the rest of the world remained in a state of vigilance, anticipating potential outcomes and seeking to ensure a well-prepared response. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)’s 2024 yearbook, Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, indicates that as of January 2024, nine states, namely, the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel, possessed a total of 12,121 nuclear weapons, of which 9,585 were operational. Approximately 4,000 of these were deployed and under the control of operational forces.

The aggregate data suggests a decline in the number of nuclear warheads, but this is merely a consequence of the dismantlement of retired warheads by Russia and the United States. By contrast, numerous states with relatively modest nuclear arsenals, including China and the United Kingdom, are either augmenting or intending to expand their nuclear capabilities.

In the United States, several polls conducted in the weeks preceding the presidential election indicate that the two candidates are in a statistical tie. It is unfortunate that we are not yet in a position to determine the extent to which the situation could potentially be worse than the damage caused by the Joe Biden administration.

We are at a critical juncture where all the available options seem unsatisfactory. And it would be untenable to frame the least unfavorable outcome as being the optimal one. The global system is currently at a standstill, the world has become a veritable arsenal, and the future is fraught with potential for further conflict. In the light of these circumstances, Nihon Hidankyo and the civilians who have suffered as a result of the ongoing war and terrorist attacks in the Middle East are once again appealing to humanity to put an end to this senseless cycle of violence. 

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Sylff@Tokyo: Fletcher’s Multinational Focus on Meeting Global Challenges

October 16, 2024

The Sylff Association secretariat was delighted to welcome two distinguished visitors from Tufts University and the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy on October 10.

Newly appointed dean of the Fletcher School Kelly Sims Gallagher and Tufts University Vice President for Development Sara Judge met with Tokyo Foundation for Policy Research President Izumi Kadono and members of the Sylff Association secretariat staff.

The history of the Sylff program began with the Fletcher School at Tufts University when it became the very first institution to receive a Sylff endowment in 1987. To date it has produced many outstanding fellows who have gone on to illustrious careers.

Examples include Amal Jadou, newly appointed Palestinian ambassador to the European Union; Jan Havranek, the deputy chief of mission at the Czech Republic Embassy in the United States who has been engaged in NATO coordination in Washington, DC; and Kaddu Sebunya, who as CEO of the African Wildlife Foundation is rallying the continent’s leaders to fight against the destruction of valuable habitats and wildlife.

Other recent fellows include Seth Owusu-Mante, who is working on renewable energy in Africa, and Bethany Christine Tietjen, who is involved in climate adaptation policy.

Gallagher noted that about one-third of Fletcher graduates go into private business—including social entrepreneurship—another third into the government sector, and the remaining third into intergovernmental organizations like the UN and the World Bank and also global nonprofits.

“This year we have seventy-five countries represented in the student body at Fletcher,” Gallagher noted. “It’s like a microcosm of the whole world, with there being many different perspectives in the classroom. This has an impact on their leadership style, and it’s very healthy in promoting cultural awareness. Our alumni are very comfortable working globally.”

Fletcher is also unique in not only offering fellowships but also supporting internships for Sylff fellows. “Internships can be very powerful for the students because they’ll have a chance to experiment with different careers and different types of organizations, so this is very much appreciated. We find that the students benefit a lot from ‘experiential education,’ where they have an opportunity to learn on the job and take new risks without having to make a permanent commitment.”

The Sylff Association secretariat is very grateful for the visit from the Fletcher School and hopes to continue working closely with the institution to promote leadership development among current and graduated fellows.

(From left) Program Officer Konatsu Furuya, Director Keita Sugai, President Izumi Kadono, Dean Kelly Sims Gallagher, Vice President for Development Sara Judge, and English Editor Nozomu Kawamoto.

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Behavioral Disorders in the Digital Age

October 9, 2024
By 31442

The internet has become an integral part of our lives, offering both connection and entertainment. Ákos Arató (Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2024) points out, however, that deepening reliance on tech has led to concerning behavioral addictions, prompting research into their psychological impacts.

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The ubiquitous and growing use of the internet, along with other digital tools, has brought about radical changes in society, making online devices an indispensable part of our lives. Over the past decade, in particular, the internet has gained a more prominent place in many areas of our lives as a fast and easy way of connecting with others, as a source of entertainment, and as a provider of instant answers to the challenges of everyday life. With smartphones now in everyone’s pocket, people can access a wealth of content that gives us positive feedback and offers respite from the difficulties of everyday life.

At the same time, the high functionality of the internet can, depending on personal disposition, easily lead to disorders similar to behavioral and substance addictions, such as problematic internet use (PIU) (Young, 1998), problematic smartphone use (Panova & Carbonell, 2018), and problematic social media use (Hou et al., 2019).

Nearly 68% of the world’s population uses the internet on a daily basis; in many European countries, this figure exceeds 90% (Iceland 100%, Norway 98%, Denmark 96%, United Kingdom 95%, Germany 94%). In Asia, almost 97% of the population in South Korea has access to the internet, while the figure in China is nearly 70%. The fastest growth in internet use over the last decade, though, has been in the developing countries of Africa (Mali 60%, Cameroon 33%) (World Stats, 2023).

As for mobile devices, nearly 80% of people around the world have a device that enables them to stay connected online, and more than 50% believe that access to the internet is an essential part of their daily lives (Fuchs et al., 2018). It is currently estimated that 6% of the world’s population is affected by PIU (Hull & Proulx, 2022), which suggests that these disorders are considered a new and relatively fast-growing mental health concern.

In the light of the prevalence of digital devices and the growth in disorders related to their use, I have chosen to focus my research on internet use, and more specifically, the impact of PIU on psychological well-being, psychological functioning, and underlying neurobehavioral functions.

Some people have compulsive thoughts about their internet-related activities.

Psychological Consequences of PIU

PIU is frequently defined as a form of behavioral addiction (Brand et al., 2016). PIU includes the uncontrolled use of the internet, obsessive thinking about it, or the neglect of other activities, such as daily chores, work, and social life (Demetrovics et al., 2008). All addictions have both psychological and physical characteristics, and PIU is no exception. The physical symptoms occur mostly during the withdrawal phase, while the psychological symptoms, such as anxiety, appear in the absence of the object of the behavioral disorder.

As a behavioral addiction, PIU is best understood through psychological symptoms, such as depression, anxiety, interpersonal problems, sleep deprivation, compulsive behaviors, low self-esteem, and emotional distress (Mihajlov & Vejmelka, 2017). When problematic users are prevented from engaging in their addictive activities for any reason, they experience various emotional withdrawal symptoms. More impulsive, aggressive, and compulsive behavioral reactions are also not uncommon (Park et al., 2014). This is not surprising, as withdrawal symptoms are generally accompanied by low self-control.

In addition, many researchers have found that problematic users are unable to regulate their emotional reactions (Caplan, 2010), which not only results in poor emotion regulation strategies but also affects their ability to cope with behavioral difficulties. Behavioral disorders like PIU can thus easily develop in the absence of adequate self-control and emotional regulation (Brand et al., 2016).

In terms of psychological disorders, it is generally agreed that there is a positive relationship between depressive symptom levels and internet use (Andreassen et al., 2016) and a negative relationship between heavy use of social networking sites and self-esteem (Malik & Khan, 2015). Heavy internet use can have negative consequences for individuals’ personality and social life (Griffiths, 2014) and can also lead to difficulties in work and academic performance.  

However, it is important to note that the direction of the relationship between social media and various psychological outcomes is often unclear. It is possible that an individual’s depressive and anxious nature contributes to spending more time on social networking sites, while the reverse can also be true (L. Y. Lin et al., 2016). The fact that individuals’ prior psychological distress can be considered a risk factor for PIU may provide some explanation for this dichotomy. Of course, problematic internet and social media use may also increase the level of prior distress and contribute to the likelihood of depression onset (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2015).

Brand’s Model on the Development and Maintence of Internet-Use Disorders

Note: Bold arrows represent the main pathways of the addiction process.

 

Functional Brain Alterations and Future Directions in PIU

Several studies, moreover, have been conducted to investigate the effects of PIU on various cognitive functions (Weinstein, 2022). These studies have mainly used functional and structural magnetic resonance imaging to investigate the underlying neural alterations behind cognitive functions in PIU.

These studies found structural and functional alterations in the brain’s reward (Altbäcker et al., 2016), executive (Darnai et al., 2019), inhibitory control (Dong et al., 2012), language (Darnai et al., 2022), social (Arató et al., 2023), and default mode (Darnai et al., 2019) systems, which were associated with reduced cognitive and executive control, diminished attentional processes, and impaired emotion regulation.

Altered functioning of executive and cognitive control functions are prerequisites for the development and maintenance of addictive disorders (Brand et al., 2016). And a decline in cognitive control functions and emotional regulation is a common phenomenon across different addictions.

Given these higher-level brain alterations, I believe it is important to explore what other higher-order functions might be associated with PIU. Therefore, for many years, the main theme of my research has been to investigate different psychological states and their possible neurological underpinnings in young adults with PIU.

Previous studies in which I have been engaged have confirmed the altered functioning of inhibitory and default systems in the brain (Darnai et al., 2019). And we have shown for the first time that social cognitive functions (the recognition of emotional facial expressions) and the underlying neural functions are associated with PIU levels in young adults (Arató et al., 2023).

In my present study, I am investigating mental fatigue in individuals with PIU. Long-term fatigue is a common symptom in addictions and is often reported by those diagnosed with PIU (Bachleda & Darhiri, 2018). The extent of PIU, moreover, has an independent effect on the level of perceived long-term mental fatigue (S. C. Lin et al., 2013). Spending a lot of time online and being constantly fed internet-related cues may lead to permanent fatigue in daily and professional life and could result in higher safety risks (Nachreiner, 2001), occupational issues (Williamson et al., 2011), and traffic accidents (Zeller et al., 2020).

Due to the lack of studies in this area, I would like to fill the gap in the scientific literature and provide a scientifically based foundation for appropriate preventive and therapeutic methods to reduce the amount of long-term and task-induced fatigue caused by PIU and thereby increase the psychological well-being of individuals.

References

Altbäcker, A., Plózer, E., Darnai, G., Perlaki, G., Horváth, R., Orsi, G., Nagy, S. A., Bogner, P., Schwarcz, A., Kovács, N., Komoly, S., Clemens, Z., & Janszky, J. (2016). Problematic internet use is associated with structural alterations in the brain reward system in females. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 10(4), 953–959. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-015-9454-9.

Andreassen, C. S., Billieux, J., Griffiths, M. D., Kuss, D. J., Demetrovics, Z., Mazzoni, E., & Pallesen, S. (2016). The relationship between addictive use of social media and video games and symptoms of psychiatric disorders: A large-scale cross-sectional study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 30(2), 252–262. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000160.

Arató, Á., Nagy, S. A., Perlaki, G., Orsi, G., Szente, A. T., Kis-Jakab, G., Áfra, E., Alhour, H. A., Kovács, N., Janszky, J., & Darnai, G. (2023). Emotional face expression recognition in problematic Internet use and excessive smartphone use: Task-based fMRI study. Scientific Reports, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-27172-0.

Bachleda, C., & Darhiri, L. (2018). Internet Addiction and Mental and Physical Fatigue. The International Technology Management Review, 7(1), 25–33. https://doi.org/10.2991/itmr.7.1.3.

Brand, M., Young, K. S., Laier, C., Wölfling, K., & Potenza, M. N. (2016). Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 71, 252–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033.

Caplan, S. E. (2010). Theory and measurement of generalized problematic Internet use: A two-step approach. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 1089–1097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.012.

Darnai, G., Perlaki, G., Zsidó, A. N., Inhóf, O., Orsi, G., Horváth, R., Nagy, S. A., Lábadi, B., Tényi, D., Kovács, N., Dóczi, T., Demetrovics, Z., & Janszky, J. (2019). Internet addiction and functional brain networks: task-related fMRI study. Scientific Reports, 9, 15777. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52296-1.

Darnai, G., Perlaki, G., Orsi, G., Arató, Á., Szente, A., Horváth, R., Áfra, E., Nagy, S. A., Kovács, N., Dóczi, T., & Janszky, J. (2022). Language processing in Internet use disorder: Task-based fMRI study. Plos One, 17(6), e0269979. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269979.

Demetrovics, Z., Szeredi, B., & Rózsa, S. (2008). The three-factor model of Internet addiction: The development of the Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire. Behavior Research Methods, 40(2), 563–574. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.2.563.

Dong, G., DeVito, E. E., Du, X., & Cui, Z. (2012). Impaired inhibitory control in “internet addiction disorder”: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 203(2–3), 153–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2012.02.001.

Fuchs, M., Riedl, D., Bock, A., Rumpold, G., & Sevecke, K. (2018). Pathological Internet Use—An Important Comorbidity in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Prevalence and Correlation Patterns in a Naturalistic Sample of Adolescent Inpatients. BioMed Research International, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1629147.

Gámez-Guadix, M., Calvete, E., Orue, I., & Las Hayas, C. (2015). Problematic Internet use and problematic alcohol use from the cognitive-behavioral model: A longitudinal study among adolescents. Addictive Behaviors, 40, 109–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.09.009.

Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Internet Addiction Disorder and Internet Gaming Disorder Are Not the Same. Journal of Addiction Research & Therapy, 05(04). https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-6105.1000e124.

Hou, Y., Xiong, D., Jiang, T., Song, L., & Wang, Q. (2019). Social media addiction: Its impact, mediation, and intervention. Cyberpsychology, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2019-1-4.

Hull, M., & Proulx, D. A. (2022). Internet addiction facts and statistics. Umatilla, FL: The Recovery Village.

Lin, L. Y., Sidani, J. E., Shensa, A., Radovic, A., Miller, E., Colditz, J. B., Hoffman, B. L., Giles, L. M., & Primack, B. A. (2016). Association between Social Media Use and Depression among U.S. Young Adults. Depression and Anxiety, 33(4), 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22466.

Lin, S. C., Tsai, K. W., Chen, M. W., & Koo, M. (2013). Association between fatigue and Internet addiction in female hospital nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 69(2), 374–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2012.06016.x.

Malik, S., & Khan, M. (2015). Impact of facebook addiction on narcissistic behavior and Self-Esteem among students. Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275716907.

Mihajlov, M., & Vejmelka, L. (2017). Internet addiction: A review of the first twenty years. Psychiatria Danubina, 29(3), 260–272.

Nachreiner, F. (2001). Time on Task Effects on Safety. Journal of Human Ergology, 30(1-2), 97–102.

Panova, T., & Carbonell, X. (2018). Is smartphone addiction really an addiction? Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 7(2), 252–259. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.7.2018.49.

Park, S., Kang, M., & Kim, E. (2014). Social relationship on problematic Internet use (PIU) among adolescents in South Korea: A moderated mediation model of self-esteem and self-control. Computers in Human Behavior, 38, 349–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.06.005.

Weinstein, A. (2022). Problematic Internet usage: Brain imaging findings. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2022.101209.

Williamson, A., Lombardi, D. A., Folkard, S., Stutts, J., Courtney, T. K., & Connor, J. L. (2011). The link between fatigue and safety. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 43(2), 498–515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2009.11.011.

Young, K. S. (1998). Internet Addiction: The Emergence of a New Clinical Disorder. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 1(3), 237–244. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.1998.1.237.

Zeller, R., Williamson, A., & Friswell, R. (2020). The effect of sleep-need and time-on-task on driver fatigue. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 74, 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2020.08.001.

 

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The Impact of Terrorist Attacks on Tourism Arrivals and Income

October 1, 2024
By 30654

There has long been a correlation between terrorism and tourism, as terrorist attacks can reduce tourist arrivals at certain destinations until the unrest subsides. Farhad Nazir (University of Coimbra, 2022) undertook a study on the impact of terrorism on tourism arrivals and income by analyzing 30 years of data. This Voices article is based on a book chapter that was originally published in the Research Handbook on Tourism, Complexity and Uncertainty.

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Analyzing the Global Terrorism Database (START, 2022) provides evidence that almost every country in the world has experienced terrorist attacks. Since the second half of the twentieth century, terrorism has become a method of armed, institutionalized, and geographically widespread conflict (Seabra, 2019). There has been a proliferation of armed conflict in recent years, with the most influential phenomenon for geopolitical change being terrorism (Cutter, Richardson, & Wilbanks, 2003). Since the late 1960s, terrorist attacks have become more brutal and violent, far more organized, and geographically disseminated (Reisinger & Mavondo, 2005). International and domestic terrorism (perpetrated by national or international groups) have become a fact of modern life since the 1980s.

The impact of terrorism on the economy and society has been extensively documented in the literature on tourism (Blomberg, Hess, & Orphanides, 2004; Crain & Crain, 2006; Enders & Sandler, 1996; Krueger & Maleckova, 2003; Llussá & Tavares, 2007). Researchers in the 1980s predicted a substantial increase in terrorist attacks in the future, speculating that terrorist groups would continue to select vulnerable targets, attacks would become more indiscriminate, and terrorism would become more institutionalized and geographically widespread as a method of armed conflict (Atkinson, Sandler, & Tschirhart, 1987).

By attacking tourism targets, terrorist organizations gain publicity and achieve strategic and ideological goals by attracting attention to their message of opposition (Seabra, 2019). This unhappy match and the embedded dimensions and consequences for tourism demand and supply have been exhaustively contemplated in academic research since the 1980s. There has long been a close link between terrorism and tourism, but a number of high-profile attacks have brought a paradigm shift in demand and supply of the tourism system (Avraham, 2020).

Terrorist organizations appear to have become mainly focused on communicating a message to the largest possible audience: the 1972 attack during the Munich Olympics reached an audience of 800 million viewers (Schmid & De Graaf, 1982); the kidnapping of the Achille Lauro cruise ship in 1985 attracted global attention for weeks; and 9/11 in New York in 2001 showed the world that terrorists were willing to attack defenseless civilians in pursuing their objectives.

The 9/11 Memorial & Museum, located at the site of the former World Trade Center in New York. ©Chris Hepburn / Getty Images

My research focuses on the impact of terrorism events on the tourism industry. Specifically, I analyzed how the number of terrorist events over the past 30 years (1991–2019), retrieved from the Global Terrorism Database (START, 2022), has impacted tourism income and arrivals in various regions, as classified by the UN World Tourism Organization (UNWTO): North Africa; Sub-Saharan Africa; North, South, and Central America; the Caribbean; Northeast, South, and Southeast Asia and Oceania; Northern, Central/Eastern, Southern/Mediterranean Europe; Western Europe; and the Middle East. Using a Pearson correlation coefficient and a linear regression method, I measured the impact of terrorism events on tourist arrivals and tourism income generation for each UNWTO region.

Positive and Negative Impacts

For this study I worked with colleagues Claudia Seabra, assistant professor at the University of Coimbra, and Sunil Tewari, assistant professor at the Central University of Kerala. The study was empirical in nature, conducted through both qualitative and quantitative methods. To examine the association between terrorism events (predictor variable) and tourist arrivals and tourism income (outcome variables), a Pearson correlation coefficient was used. In the context of this study, terrorism events were regarded as independent variables and tourist arrivals as a dependent variable. Further, with the help of a linear regression method, the impact of terrorism events on tourist arrivals and tourism income was measured separately.

Terrorism is a serious, global concern for both domestic and cross-border tourism, which has been subject to immense and lasting impacts. Our analysis of the impact of terrorism events over the last 30 years in the UNWTO regions indicates that there have been both positive and negative impacts on tourist arrivals. In regions like South America, Central America, the Caribbean, Northeast Asia, Oceania, Southern/Mediterranean Europe, and Western Europe, the number of tourists decreased significantly. Conversely, in regions such as North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, North America, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Northern Europe, Central/Eastern Europe, and the Middle East, the number of tourists increased.

Similarly, tourism income significantly decreased due to terrorism events in such regions as South America, Central America, the Caribbean, Northeast Asia, Oceania, Southern/Mediterranean Europe, and Western Europe, whereas in regions like North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, North America, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Northern Europe, Central/Eastern Europe, and the Middle East, tourism income increased from 1991 to 2019.

Key Insights

This study offers several insights that have theoretical, academic, and institutional implications. Theoretically, we have corroborated the link between terrorist attacks and fluctuations in tourist arrivals and income. On the academic discourse front, this study has identified important dimensions and perspectives in envisaging the statistical variances, nature, and consequences of terrorist attacks. And for institutions and legal entities, both public and private, this endeavor has identified the key grey areas that need to be emphasized prior to, during, and after terrorist incidents.

Tourism destinations need to readdress conventional crisis management plans and blueprints, as existing institutional frameworks, governance legislation, and environmental landscapes may be inadequate to cope with fluctuating global conditions. The empirical results of this study suggest that a surge of terrorism events significantly impacts tourist arrivals and tourism income for a short duration. But after some time passes, tourists are even more curious to explore such destinations. International tourist arrivals will decline in the long run compared to domestic tourists, since international tourists want to avoid any kind of risk in their travel plans. In destinations affected by terrorism, governments and tourism organizations need to address safety measures and build marketing and promotion plans to reclaim their natural tourism markets.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge that this research received support from the Centre of Studies in Geography and Spatial Planning in Portugal, funded by the Foundation for Science and Technology, and from the Ryoichi Sasakawa Young Leaders Fellowship Fund of the Tokyo Foundation for Policy Research.

References

Atkinson, S., Sandler, T., & Tschirhart, J. (1987). Terrorism in a Bargaining Framework. Journal of Law and Economics, 30(1), 1–21.

Avraham, E. (2020). Combating Tourism Crisis following Terror Attacks: Image Repair Strategies for European Destinations since 2014. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(8), 1079–1092.

Blomberg, S., Hess, G., & Orphanides, A. (2004). The Macroeconomic Consequences of Terrorism. Journal of Monetary Economics, 51, 1007–1032.

Crain, N., & Crain, W. (2006). Terrorized Economies. Public Choice, 128, 317–349.

Cutter, S., Richardson, D. & Wilbanks, T. (2003). The Geographical Dimensions of Terrorism. New York: Routledge.

Enders, W., & Sandler, T. (1996). Terrorism and Foreign Direct Dnvestment in Spain and Greece. Kyklos, 49, 331–352.

Krueger, A., & Maleckova, J. (2003). Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 17(4), 119–144.

Llussá, F., & Tavares, J. (2007). Economics and Terrorism: What We Know, What We Should Know and the Data We Need. In P. Keefer & N. Loayza (eds), Terrorism, Economic Development, and Political Openness (pp. 233–254). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Reisinger, Y., & Mavondo, F. (2005). Travel Anxiety and Intentions to Travel Internationally: Implications of Travel Risk Perception. Journal of Travel Research, 43(3), 212–225.

Schmid, A. P. & De Graaf, J. (1982). Violence as Communication. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Seabra, C. (2019). Terrorism and Tourism Revisited. In A. Correia, A. Fyall, & M. Kozak (eds), Experiential Consumption and Marketing in Tourism: A Cross-Cultural Context (pp. 57–75). Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers.

START (University of Maryland National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism) (2022). Global Terrorism Database. https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/.

 

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Sofia Fellow Supervises Bulgaria’s First Summer School of Ancient Near Eastern Studies

September 24, 2024

The first Summer School of Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Bulgaria was held from August 26 to 30, 2024, in Sofia. Supervised by Zozan Tarhan, a 2020 Sylff fellowship recipient at Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski,” the program was held at the Regional History Museum Sofia and featured guest lecturer Priv.-Doz. Sebastian Fink of the University of Innsbruck, an expert on the language, literature, and ıntellectual history of the ancient Near East.

Program participants listen to a lecture on ancient Mesopotamia. ©Mario Filipov

More than 20 people from different countries took part in the program. Students, alumni, and researchers from Sofia University were joined by those from the New Bulgarian University, the University of Plovdiv, the University of Veliko Tarnovo, the University of Oxford, the Free University of Berlin, the University of Göttingen, the University of Amsterdam, and the National University of Kyiv, who were all eager to learn more about ancient Mesopotamia.

The Summer School offered basic knowledge about the field of ancient Near Eastern studies, also known as Assyriology. Participants received philological introductions to the basics of Akkadian and Sumerian—two of the world’s most ancient languages—worked with cuneiform texts, and were introduced to the history, culture, and religion of ancient Mesopotamia.

The program comprised intensive courses introducing ancient Near Eastern studies (S. Fink and Z. Tarhan), Akkadian (Z. Tarhan), Sumerian (S. Fink), religion in ancient Mesopotamia (S. Fink and Z. Tarhan), and archaeology of the ancient Near East (Z. Tarhan).

The Summer School was an outgrowth of Tarhan’s endeavors to develop a center for Assyriology and ancient Near Eastern studies in Bulgaria, both for study and research. Following the model of other international intensive and summer programs, Tarhan held the first intensive course in Akkadian on August 21–25, 2023, also hosted by the Regional History Museum Sofia. With the success of this course, Tarhan and the museum began preparations for an expanded program, culminating in the August 2024 Summer School of Ancient Near Eastern Studies.

Sebastian Fink and Zozan Tarhan (right and second from right) and other Summer School participants at the Regional History Museum Sofia. ©Mario Filipov

Zozan Tarhan is a recognized Assyriologist at Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski with experience in philological work on cuneiform texts, mainly in Akkadian, and an expert in the study of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. She is currently editing unpublished texts .

Sebastian Fink is an Assyriologist at the University of Innsbruck focusing on Sumerian texts and is one of the leading specialists of Emesal. He has studied topics on various aspects of Mesopotamian history and culture.

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Harmony in Diversity: Multicultural Education at China’s Universities for Ethnic Minorities

September 12, 2024
By 30637

Multicultural education that seeks to balance diversity and unity has become vital for many countries in the era of globalization. The “color-blind” approach that promotes equality regardless of race or ethnicity often overlooks systemic disparities, however. Dak Lhagyal (Columbia University, 2020, 2021) used an SRG award to explore the implementation and impact of multicultural education at minzu universities for ethnic minorities in China, offering insights into their unique role within a complex national identity framework.

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In an increasingly globalized world, the concept of multicultural education has become paramount in fostering inclusive societies that celebrate diversity while promoting unity (Ramirez et al. 2009). The “color-blind” approach (Bonilla-Silva 2014), which aims to treat individuals equally regardless of their racial or ethnic backgrounds, presents itself as a universal solution in educational systems worldwide. However, this approach often overlooks the complex realities of racial and ethnic disparities, raising questions about its effectiveness in addressing the deep-rooted issues of inequality and discrimination in multicultural settings (Bonilla-Silva 2014).

My research delves into the implementation and implications of multicultural education at minzu universities in China’s higher education system. These institutions, dedicated to the education of ethnic minority students, provide a unique context to examine the dynamics of multicultural education in a country that officially recognizes 56 ethnic groups (Clothey 2005; Zenz 2013). Employing qualitative research methods, including ethnographic interviews and participant observations, I conducted research at a prominent minzu university in western China. This site was chosen for its diverse student body and its role in the national strategy to promote ethnic unity and cultural diversity.

The choice of my topic stems from a growing interest in understanding how state-led multicultural policies impact interethnic relations and identity formation within educational settings (Leibold 2019). By examining the nuanced experiences of students and faculty within minzu universities, my study aims to contribute to the broader discourse on multicultural education and its capacity to address or perpetuate ethnic inequalities (Leibold & Chen 2014). The findings offer insights into the complex interplay between policy, identity, and educational practice (Yang 2017; Grose 2019; Robin 2014), shedding light on the broader societal implications of diversity education in a context as diverse as China’s. Through this analysis, I seek to enhance understanding of the potential and limitations of multicultural education in fostering truly inclusive and equitable educational environments (Lhagyal 2021).

Dual Role of Minzu Universities in Ethnic Identity Formation

Minzu universities in China hold a distinctive position within the country’s educational landscape, serving a dual purpose in the formation of ethnic identity among minority students (Clothey 2005). These institutions, designed to cater specifically to the educational needs of China’s ethnic minorities, offer a unique blend of cultural preservation and integration into the broader Chinese national identity (Zenz 2013; Yang 2017). At the heart of the minzu university experience is the endeavor to maintain the linguistic and cultural heritage of ethnic minority students while also integrating them into the Han-dominated national narrative (Clothey 2005). These institutions provide programs in both ethnic minority languages and Mandarin, reflecting a commitment to bilingual education (Zenz 2013; Robin 2014). This approach aims to equip students with the tools needed to navigate the broader Chinese society while retaining a connection to their ethnic roots (Yang 2017).

Research conducted at these universities reveals a nuanced impact on student identity. For Tibetan students, for instance, the environment fosters a heightened awareness of their ethnic heritage and encourages the formation of a modern Tibetan identity that coexists with the national identity promoted by Beijing. This dual identity formation process highlights the universities’ role in creating a space where ethnic minority students can explore and redefine their cultural identities within the context of a dominant national culture.

A curator explains the traditional Tibetan thangka painting to a group of student visitors at a minzu university museum in April 2023.

However, the experiences of students at minzu universities are not without challenges. The push and pull between ethnic and national identities can lead to a complex negotiation of identity for students, who must navigate the expectations and norms of both their ethnic community and the broader Chinese society. By offering an education that straddles ethnic heritage and national integration, minzu universities facilitate a form of identity formation that reflects the complexities of modern Chinese society.

State-Led Multiculturalism and Interethnic Relations

China’s approach to multiculturalism, particularly through its education system, offers a distinctive perspective on managing interethnic relations. Within this framework, minzu universities emerge as pivotal institutions where the nation’s aspirations towards unity in diversity are enacted. These institutions embody state-led efforts to foster multicultural education, aiming to enhance mutual understanding and respect among China’s numerous ethnic groups. My research delves into the effects of such policies on interethnic relations, shedding light on the nuanced outcomes of these endeavors.

State-led multiculturalism in China is characterized by the promotion of ethnic diversity alongside the reinforcement of a unified national identity. Minzu universities play a critical role in this strategy, providing a platform for students from diverse ethnic backgrounds to engage with each other and the nation’s dominant Han culture. The presence of programs that celebrate ethnic minority languages and cultures within these universities illustrates the state’s commitment to diversity. However, the overarching goal remains the cultivation of a cohesive national identity among all students.

Tibetan students dressed in traditional attire during a university-sponsored campus activity at a minzu university in May 2023.

The impact of this approach on interethnic relations is multifaceted. On one hand, it facilitates encounters and exchanges among students of different ethnic backgrounds, potentially laying the groundwork for increased understanding and solidarity. Students are exposed to a variety of cultural perspectives, which can enrich their personal and intellectual development. On the other hand, the emphasis on a unified national identity might overshadow the distinctiveness of minority cultures, complicating the process of identity formation for minority students.

These dynamics underscore the complexity of implementing state-led multiculturalism in a society as diverse as China’s. While aiming to harmonize interethnic relations, the challenge lies in balancing the celebration of ethnic diversity with the promotion of national unity. Through the lens of minzu universities, we gain insight into both the achievements and challenges of this endeavor, highlighting the ongoing negotiation of identity and belonging in China’s multicultural landscape.

Institutional and Structural Challenges in Ethnic Inequality

In the diverse landscape of China’s higher education, minzu universities represent a critical effort to integrate ethnic minority students into the national fabric while respecting their unique cultural identities. However, these institutions face the monumental task of addressing and overcoming ethnic inequalities within an educational and societal context.

At the core of minzu universities’ mission is the goal of fostering an environment where students from all ethnic backgrounds can thrive academically and socially. These universities are designed to be inclusive spaces that not only educate but also promote understanding and respect for cultural diversity. They offer programs in minority languages and culture, aiming to elevate the status of ethnic minorities within the broader society.

Despite these commendable efforts, challenges persist in fully addressing the deep-rooted inequalities that affect ethnic minority students. One of the primary obstacles is the delicate balance between celebrating diversity and ensuring equal opportunities for all students. While the curriculum and extracurricular activities at minzu universities strive to highlight ethnic traditions and languages, ensuring that diversity does not translate into disadvantage remains a constant challenge.

Moreover, the structural limitations within the educational and societal system can sometimes hinder the full realization of these goals. For example, the transition from education to employment remains a significant hurdle for many ethnic minority graduates, reflecting broader societal patterns of inequality.

Understanding the institutional and structural challenges faced by minzu universities in addressing ethnic inequalities is crucial. These institutions stand at the intersection of cultural preservation and societal integration, embodying the complexities of navigating ethnic diversity within a rapidly modernizing nation. Examining their efforts offers insights into both the progress made and the hurdles that remain, highlighting the nuanced journey toward achieving equality and inclusion for all ethnic groups in China.

Toward a More Inclusive Multicultural Education

China’s innovative approach to multiculturalism within its higher education system, particularly through the minzu universities, represents a significant endeavor to integrate ethnic diversity with national unity. These institutions serve as a focal point for exploring the intricate balance between celebrating ethnic identities and fostering a cohesive Chinese national identity. They not only provide education in minority languages and cultures but also serve as a microcosm for understanding broader societal dynamics. The dual identity formation process they facilitate highlights the potential for creating a more inclusive national identity that acknowledges and respects ethnic diversity.

The state-led approach to multiculturalism has had a nuanced impact on interethnic relations. While it promotes interactions among diverse student bodies, fostering understanding and solidarity, it also faces the challenge of ensuring that the richness of minority cultures is not overshadowed by the overarching narrative of national unity. The experiences of students within these universities underscore the delicate balance between celebrating diversity and achieving cohesion.

Institutional and structural challenges persist in fully addressing ethnic inequalities within the education system. Despite efforts to promote equality and inclusion, disparities in educational outcomes and experiences among ethnic groups indicate areas for further reflection and improvement.

China’s minzu universities embody the country’s commitment to navigating the complexities of multicultural education. Their role in shaping the future of ethnic relations and national identity in China is both critical and evolving. As these institutions continue to navigate the challenges and opportunities presented by the country’s diversity, they serve as a valuable case study for understanding the broader implications of multiculturalism in education. I hope my research will provide a foundation for further analysis and deeper understanding of the dynamics at play in one of the world’s most populous and culturally diverse countries.

References

Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2014. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States, 4th ed. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Clothey, Rebecca. 2005. “China’s Policies for Minority Nationalities in Higher Education: Negotiating National Values and Ethnic Identities.” Comparative Education Review, 49(3), pp. 389–409.

Grose, Timothy. 2019. Negotiating Inseparability in China: The Xinjiang Class and the Dynamics of Uyghur Identity. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.

Leibold, James. 2019. “Planting the Seed: Ethnic Policy in Xi Jinping’s New Era of Cultural Nationalism.” China Brief, 19(22), pp. 9–14.

Leibold, James, and Yangbin Chen, eds. 2014. Minority Education in China: Balancing Unity and Diversity in an Era of Critical Pluralism. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.

Lhagyal, Dak. 2021. “‘Linguistic Authority’ in State-Society Interaction: Cultural Politics of Tibetan Education in China.” Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 42(3), pp. 353–367.

Ramirez, Francisco O., Patricia Bromley, and Susan Garnett Russell. 2009. “The Valorization of Humanity and Diversity.” Multicultural Education Review, 1(1), pp. 29–54.

Robin, Françoise. 2014. “Streets, Slogans and Screens: New Paradigms for the Defence of the Tibetan.” In Trine Brox and Ildikó Bellér-Hann, eds., On the Fringes of the Harmonious Society: Tibetans and Uyghurs in Socialist China. Copenhagen: Nias Press, pp. 209–235.

Yang, Miaoyan. 2017. Learning to Be Tibetan: The Construction of Ethnic Identity at Minzu University of China. Lanham: Lexington Books.

Zenz, Adrian. 2013. “Tibetanness” Under Threat?: Neo-Integrationism, Minority Education and Career Strategies in Qinghai, PR China. Leiden: Brill.